You have to have many quotations in your paper. When you quote anything, ask yourself why you are quoting it. The trouble with many student research papers is that they are not much more than a collection of quoted passages or that they are just stringing their notes or quotations together. Thus, the author will not get much credit for papers full of long quotations. As for the length of a quotation, quote as much as you need to make your point, and no more. Bear in mind that quoting a word or phrase is a way of emphasizing it. If a phrase is buried in a long quotation, you will lose the emphasis.
 
              (1)   Using quotations
If you want to quote, you have to put quotation marks exactly around the beginning and the end of the source immediately followed by a footnote numbered. At the bottom of the page or at the end of the paper, a footnote is given. But you must note that quoted material should not take up more than one-fifth of the total research paper.
And each quotation should not take up more than four lines. Long quotations (more than four lines) do not have quotation marks around them in a research paper. They should be single-spaced and indented five spaces from the left and right margins of the text. A colon is used to introduce a long passage as in the following example:
 
…… The gap between dreams and remembered experience is sometimes so wide, in fact, that at least one modern psychologist locates their origin in something outside of experience. Carl G. Jung writes:
 
One cannot afford to be naive in dealing with dream. They originate in a spirit that is not quite human, but is rather a breath of nature. If we want to characterize this spirit, we shall certainly get closer to it in the sphere of ancient mythologies, or the fables of the primeval forest, than in the consciousness of modern man.²
 
Quotations should be smoothly incorporated into the paper by using transitional phrase or sentence, such as:
 
                            as X states
                                    declared
                                    wrote
                                    commented
                                    noted
 
              (2)   Paraphrasing
In most instances, the best way to incorporate source material into your paper is by paraphrasing, that is, restating in your own words what is stated in the source. This can also be done by using a transitional phrase or sentence, such as:
 
                            According to X,
                            It is stated by X that
                            It is noted by X that
 
               For example:
It is commented by Maley that the foreign teacher is apt to find this puzzled concern with this detailed language somewhat distressing since for him, reading is nothing else but teaching students to learn from textbooks efficiently and to use what they learn in their business.¹
 
               Paraphrases, like quotations, must be footnoted as the above.
But quoting is not the only way of using materials in your notes. You can write summaries, restatements or paraphrasing the quotations. When you write summaries, you can produce much more effective passages.
After a quotation, a commentary is usually given, but your commentary is usually as long as the quotation. If a lengthy passage is important enough to be quoted in full, you ought to have some important thing to say about it. If you don't have much to say about it, don't quote it, or at all. A long quotation followed by a single sentence of commentary usually tells the reader that the writer is dozing his or her way through the paper.
 
3.    Always explain the relation between the statements and in an analysis, also evaluate the statements. Unless it is immediately obvious, you should tell the reader how one statement reinforces, qualifies, or contradicts another. In an analysis, you should evaluate the statements you cite, especially when they represent conflicting points of view. If you don't evaluate the statements and choose between them, you will not make your viewpoint clear, and you will fail to present an argument in the paper as a whole.
 
4.      In a survey, end by summarizing the various viewpoints you have considered; in an analysis, end by stating your own viewpoint and the
 
-------------------------------
¹Allan Malley. 1983. “Xanada – ‘A miracle of rare device’: the teaching of English in China”,  A language Learning and Communication 2 (1) p. 104.
reasons for it.
 
       A Survey
 
If you set out to make a survey of the various opinions about the nature of dreams, you should end by summarizing or broadly categorizing them:
 
                     …….
A survey of theories about dreams, then, shows that there is little agreement and much disagreement about where they come from, what they mean, and what purpose they serve. Jung locates their origin in the unconscious and in ancient archetypes; others, such as Fromm, regard them as the product of experiences in our waking life. Virtually all commentators on dreams agree that they mean something, but what they mean is disputed. While Freud says that a dream is the fulfillment of a wish, others see it as the result of a purely physical activity — of rapid eye movement during certain phases of sleep. Finally, while Jung regards dreams as “message carriers” from the instincts to the conscious mind, others argue that dreams solve specific problems and enable us to cope with the waking world. I can only conclude that dreams are — and will probably remain — a subject of debate and dispute.
 
An analysis
 
By the contrast, the writer of analysis should end by making his or her view explicit or by giving the reason for it. The following conclusion emphasizes the writer's viewpoint:
 

PHYSICAL EFFECTS OF MARIJUANA USE

                            By Juan Cordoba
              ……
              Conclusion
While much has already been learned about the acute physiological effects of Cannabis, much remains to be learned. It is also important to understand the possible influence of other constituents of Cannabis which may not in themselves be psycho- or physical-active but may nevertheless influence the action of those constituents which are.
In spite of the increase of marijuana research papers in the last 10 years, some actions of marijuana are incompletely understood and their possible significance for health cannot at present be evaluated. These areas are discussed under the classical organ systems approach commonly used in medicine. Cardiovascular systems, gastrointestinal function, liver function, neuroendocrine effects of marijuana, and lung function are, from my point of view, the main areas to be investigated.
 

Revising and Finalizing the Draft

      

Revision

 
When the first draft of the research paper is produced, the next important job is revision because no one is likely to work very well on his or her first draft without revision. Revision gives you the chance to strengthen your organization, to enliven your sentences, and to clarify or eliminate confusing words, phrases or construction. Since second looks often lead to second thoughts, it also lets you find some new ways to making a point.
Revision can be done in two general divisions: check overall organization and check specific points, which are again divided into eight steps.
 
1.    Check overall organization
 
       Step 1    Check the main parts of the paper
Revision lets you make sure that each part of the paper goes well with the others and that all of them work together toward your purpose. You will check if the introduction is general and concise enough as to introduce the main idea, purpose, and development and so on; if the development paragraphs support the main idea fully; and if the conclusion paragraph(s) is powerful and conclusive enough as to make a deeper impression on your readers or summarize your idea more emphatically.
 
       Step 2    Check the topic sentence of each paragraph
All the topic sentences should be closely related to the main idea introduced in the introductory paragraph(s) and control the development of the paragraph. Check if the topic sentence is general enough as to control the whole paragraph, if it is interesting to attract the reader, and if it indicates the development.
 
       Step 3    Check for unity and coherence
Check the organization, content, transition, style and tone of the paper (essay) as a whole. Look for a line of thought from beginning to end, reliable generalization support by specific details, and a consistent point of view. Consider the following questions:
·   What is the general idea? Does the main point of each paragraph follow the general idea and from the main idea developed in the preceding one?
·   Are the shifts in topic from one paragraph to the next marked by clear transitions?
              ·   Does a paragraph digress from the line of thought or work against it?
              ·   Are your style and tone consistent or do they suddenly change?
·   Are any points discussed at much greater length and others or equal importance? Is any of the commentary redundant? (For the detail, read Chapter Five.)
 
       Step 4    Check quotations and citations
       If you quote one or more sources, ask yourself the following questions:
·   Are there too many quotations? Do they crowd out your own statements, or substitute for them? Could you summarize or paraphrase any of them instead of quoting directly?
·   Is each quotation accurate? Did you copy it correctly? If you omitted some words, did you mark the omissions properly, with ellipsis dots?
·   Have you introduced each quotation clearly and with correct punctuation?
·   Have you clearly acknowledged every written source by footnoting or endnoting?
 
2.    Check specific points
 
       Step 5    Check for sentence errors
·   Are all your sentences grammatically acceptable, have you written some sentence fragments?
              ·   Does every pronoun refer clearly to its antecedent?
             ·   Is the parallelism in any sentence faulty?
              ·   Does every verb agree with its subject?
·   Do you shift tense anywhere without a good reason? Are you unsure about the sequence of tenses in any of your sentences?
 
       Step 6    Check spelling, syllabification and capitalization
Most writers misspell very often in the first draft. In revision, you have to pay special attention to some of the spellings.
              ·   Are the word endings-es, -'s, and -s' used correctly?
              ·   Are your own spelling demons now spelled correctly?
·   Are you unsure about whether or not to syllabify a word or to capitalize certain words?
·   Have you checked in the dictionary whenever you aren't sure of a spelling or syllabification?
 
       Step 7    Check the choice of words
·   Did you choose the right word and the right verb pattern in a       context?
·Does any word have the wrong denotation for its context?
              ·   Does any word have the wrong connotation for its context?
·   Is your language predominantly general and abstract? Can you make it more specific and concrete?
              ·   Can you make your language more figurative?
              ·   Are any sentences cluttered with words you don't need?
 
       Step 8    Read the paper aloud
As a final check, read the entire draft aloud. If anything sounds wrong, see whether you have overlooked part or all the previous steps.
 
       Typing and submitting your paper
 
Most instructors will expect you to type your research paper in a typewriter or produce your paper in a computer.
1.        Use the right paper. If you type, use medium-weight typing paper of standard size (8.5 by 11 inches). If you put it in a computer, use the computer paper to print it.
2.        Leave adequate margins of 1.5 to 2 inches on each side and doublespace the material. Read the format in the following pages   
3.        Number your pages in the upper right-hand corner, except for page one; this page is not numbered. Begin with number 2 on the second page. The title page and the table of contents are not numbered.
4.        Give your paper a title. If you are not required to use a separate title page, type the title of your paper, your name, name of number of the course, your instructor's name and date you hand in the paper as shown in the first format. If you do use a separate title page, follow the second format in the following and repeat the title on the first page of text.
 
                        Format with title on first page of text

 
                                                                                                                Triple                                                                                                                            space
                                                                                          Aaron He
                                                                   Professor J.S. DeCarrico
                                                                                        Ling. 486    --1"--                                                                                                Dec. 21. 1990
                                                                                                                Triple
                                                                                                                space
                            Prospective Renewal of our ESL Teaching
5-space                                                                                               Triple
indentation                                                                                         space
                       My visit to the U.S.A. makes me fully aware what
                 the language ability of application is and how big the gap
--1"--   of Chinese students studying here is in language applications.   ---1"---
                 The general impression is that they know a lot about English
                 but apply little of it, and they score high but do little with it.
 
 
 
 
                                   Format with separate title page
 

  
 
 

4"

  
 
 

                             Prospective Renewal of our ESL teaching
                                                                                                         Quadruple
                                                                                                         space
                                                 Aaron He                                                                                                                                                                           Quadruple    
                                                                                                         space
                                          Professor J. S. DeCarrico
 
                                          Ling. 486                                                        Double
                                          Dec. 21. 1990                                           space
 
 
 
 
                     First page of text following separate title page — note                                                 repetition of the title
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

                                   Prospective Renewal of our ESL teaching
                                                                                                                Triple
                                                                                                                space
                            My visit to the U.S.A. makes me fully aware what
                 the language ability of application is and how big the gap
-1"--          of Chinese students studying here is in language application.  --1"--
                 The general impression is that they know a lot about English
                 but apply little of it, and they score high but do little with it.
      
 
                                   Second and succeeding pages of text
 
                                                                                           Page no.
 

                                                                                                                Triple
                                                                                                                space
                                                                                                  2
                                                                                     Aaron He             Single
                                                                                     Ling. 486
                                                                                                                Triple
                                                                                                                space
-- 1"--  to the public that no time should be lost to make   --- 1"---
 

III.  Format of Writing References

 
 

·Writing bibliography
·Writing a footnote
·Placing first and later footnotes
·Writing an endnote
 
 
 

Writing bibliography

 
A bibliography is a list of books and articles which serve as the sources of information for your paper. Bibliographies are of two kinds: the working bibliography and the final bibliography. The former is a set of cards listing any sources which might be useful to you; the latter is a list of sources you actually use in writing the paper and is attached at the end of your paper in an alphabetical listing.
In writing the final bibliography, the following information could probably be included though there is some variation in the requirements of bibliographical entries:
       (1)   author's name      `             (2)   date of publication (year)
       (3)   title of work                      (4)   place of publication
       (5)   name of publisher
                                                                                                                             
       Smith, John. 1972. Understanding English. London: Berelman.
        (1) ↓   ↓(2)↓        (3)                ↓(4)  ↓  (5)   ↓                         comma  period period                       period  colon         period
 
       Certainly entries vary a little with your sources which may come from a book, an anthology, a magazine or a journal. So the entries may be written in somewhat different order like this:
 
       (1)   A book with one or two authors
              Chomsky, N. 1957. Syntactic Structures. The Hague: Mouton.
Hurford, J.R. & Heasley, B. 1954. Semantics: a Course book. London: Cambridge University Press.
 
       (2)   A book with two or more authors
Quirk, R. et al. 1973. A Grammar of Contemporary English. London: Longman.
 
       (3)   A book with an editor (anthology)
Allen, H. B, and Underwood, G. N, eds. 1971. Readings in American Dialectology. New York: Appleton-Century-Grofts.
 
       (4)   A book of editions other than the first
              Greenberg, J. 1966. Universals of Language. 2nd edn.
 
(5)     A translated book
Boll, Heinrich. 1974. End a Mission, Trans. Leila Vennewitz. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
 
       (6)   Work of more than one volume
Adams, W. E. and others, eds. 1968. The Western World: To 1770. 2 vols. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company.
 
       (7)   A book in which one chapter is your source
Lees, R. B. 1970. Problems in the grammatical analysis of English nominal compounds. In Bierwisch & Heidolp (eds), 174-86 pp.5, 160
Pimsleur, P. 1966. “Testing Foreign Language Learning,” Trends in language Teaching. ed. A. Valdman. New York: McGraw.
 
       (8)   A journal
Norris, William. “Advanced Reading: Goals, Techniques, Procedures,” TESOL Quarterly, IV: 1 (March, 1970), 187-193.
 
More remarks:
       A.   In the item of name of author, when writing the bibliography, the family name always comes before the first name with a comma separated. When writing a note or references, the family name has to come after it.
       B.   About the title: The title of a book is indicated by being underlined when handwritten or typed and being italicized when printed.
       C.   About chapters and articles in a book: They are quoted and ended in a comma within the quotation marks, as in (7) above.
       D.   The title of the journal is underlined or italicized just as the title of a book is underlined above, as in (8). The Roman number refers to the volume and Arabic number to the issue number, as in (8).
       E.    Some abbreviations:
              et al: and others                               trans: translation or translated
              ed (eds or edd. for pl.): editors             edn: edition
       F.    The orders and items for the entry vary from books to books and from writers to writers. e.g.
              (1)   Smith, John. Understanding English. London: Berelman. 1972.
(2) Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. (1972) A Grammar of Contemporary English. London and New York.
 
       In the above examples, the date of publication comes either at the end, as in (1) or between the name of the author and the title of a book and is parenthesized, as in (2). all the authors are listed instead of using “et al”; the title of the book is followed by a comma instead of a period and no publishers are listed.
       The above examples listed are samples — standard forms and therefore universally acceptable though there are a few variations of bibliographies.
 

Writing a footnote

 
       A footnote tells the exact place of your source for a quote or borrowed information for your paper and is written at the bottom of the page. Sometimes it is also listed consecutively at the end of the paper. A footnote is necessary to show the author's intellectual honesty: you don't want to give the impression that another arthur's ideas are your own; to support the accuracy of your paper; the readers will have more confidence in your ideas if they are backed up by a citation from an authority; and to help the readers of your paper: they can consult the information noted by you and develop their own ideas.
       The footnote references should include the necessary elements in the following order:
 
For books:
 
John Smith, Understanding English (London: Berelman, 1972), p.12.
    ↓  ↓          ↓               ↓      ↓      ↓    ↓
1st   last        title of the book                  place       name     year    page
 name            underlined or                   of pub-    of pub-    of    number
                             italicized                            lication    lication    pub-
                                                                                                      lication
            comma                          brackets   colon       comma  comma
                                                                                                                    period
 
 
For periodicals:
 
M. Falcoff, “Why Allende Fell,” Commentary, July 1976, p. 3.
             ↓                         ↓                      ↓                  ↓             ↓
1author                title of article   name of the    month and  page
                                                            periodical              year of     number
                                                            underlined     publication
                                                            or italicized
comma  in quotation     comma            comma  comma  period
                            marks
                                                                            
Place first and later footnotes
 
       There are two ways of citing sources in a paper with notes: the first reference to a source and another for all later references. The footnote for the first reference provides extensive information and the later references may be placed within the text or in the footnotes or the endnotes.
For example:
 
       First reference
 
1     Allen Maley, “Xanadu — ‘A miracle of rare device’: the teaching of English in China”,Language Learning and Communication 2 (1), (1983), p. 104.
 
       This book is cited hereafter as Maley.
 
Your later reference may be placed within the text:
 
.... What we have done is lead them “to work hard at digging a hole. But all too often, it is dug in the wrong place” (Maley, p. 105).
 
The note within the text includes the name and the page number and sometimes the name and the year of publication.
 
Or in the footnotes or endnotes:
 
.... What we have done is lead them “to work hard at digging a hole. But all too often, it is dug in the wrong place.”²
 
       Later reference
 
¹Allen Maley, “Xanadu —‘A miracle of rare device’: the teaching of English in China”, Language Learning and Communication 2 (1), (1983), p. 104. (first reference)
 
              ² Maley, p. 105. (later reference)
or:
              ² Ibid, p.105.
 
Ibid. is the abbreviation for the Latin word ibidem, meaning that the reference comes from the same source and same page number. If the page number is different, state it after ibid as indicated above. (For the detail, read Chapter 8.)
An easy way to find out the form for the type of footnote you want is to look at the footnotes in one of your sources. The footnotes can be numbered in one of the three ways:
       ·    Continuous orderfor each page
       ·    Continuous order for each chapter
       ·    Continuous order throughout the paper
 
Footnotes can be listed at the bottom of each page or at the end of the paper on a separate page, before the bibliography.
A footnote contains essentially the same information as a bibliographical entry; however, it specifies the page or pages where you find the information, the full name of the author is in natural order and the place of publication and the publisher's name are optional. Sometimes you can quote a short quote and set it off with or without quotation marks in the footnote. Usually a short line across part of the page sets apart from your text.
 
Footnote:      Continuous order throughout the page

  
 

…….
In the vast majority of cases, these infixes occur immediately before the syllable of the base that bears the lexical stress; thus while licketyfucking-split¹³ is acceptable, leckfuckingetysplet is not. Other examples which fit the standard pattern are albloodymighty, imfuckingpossible, kangabloodyroo and propafuckingganda.14Handibloodycap,15 dimfuckingwit and atmosfuckingphere are rather odd because they tend to require the re-assignment of stress to the final syllable, although it would normally fall on the first syllable of the base.…
 
-------------------------------------
13   William Goldman. 1976. Magic. London: MacMillan, p. 12.
14   All cited by MacMillan (1980).
15   Ibid. pp. 233. 167. (Ibid. is the abbreviation for Latin word ibidem meaning that the reference is the same as that cited just before.)
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